Chapter 1 - Resources and Development
7th June, 2024.
Word Meanings
1. Resource - Anything that can be used to create something or satisfy a need is called a resource.
2. Accessible - A thing or knowledge that you can lay your hands on or use and utilise.
3. Feasible - Financially profitable.
4. Acceptable - Something that is readily agreed upon.
5. Process of Transformation - The method through which a substance is changed into another product.
6. Interactive Relationship - A give and take relationship between the creator and the created.
7. Economic Development - Monetary well-being.
8. Institutional - Belonging to or of an Institution like, a company, factory, government.
9. Essential Components - Necessary parts.
10. Biotic - Biological/ Natural/ Through and from living beings.
11. Abiotic - Not biological/ Through and from non-living objects.
12. Exhaustibility - The ability of a substance to get over, used up or finished.
13. Status of Development - The state of development- unusable, readily usable and already used and created substances or objects.
14. Stock and Reserves - Things accumulated and available for future use.
15. Indiscriminately - Extensively without giving a thought.
16. Equitable - Equal.
17. Ecological - Related to Environment.
18. Sustained - That which can be used or consumed for generations without the fear of it getting over.
19. Address Problems - To tackle issues that are problematic for us.
20. Biological Diversity - The varied life-forms on land, in air, in water and in between.
21. Judicious - Using good judgement or good sense; being conscious and aware of our actions.
22. Resource Planning - A formal process by which an account of the stock of present and future availability of a substance is recorded so that it can be made available to areas and for purposes needed.
23. Absence - Lack of.
24. Corresponding Changes - Related transformation or modification.
25. Hinder - Hamper - To make a process slow and difficult.
26. Exploit resources - Use something to the point that it gets over.
27. Conserve - Save something from being used up totally.
28. Basaltic - Lava rocks.
29. Porous - Anything having minute(small) spaces or holes through which liquid or air may pass.
30. Friable - crumbly.
31. Arid - Too dry to support vegetation.
32. Leaching - Draining away of chemicals and minerals from soil because of rain or running water.
33. Humus - the organic component of soil, formed by the decomposition of leaves and other plant material by soil microorganisms.
34. Gradational - Owing to erosion, transportation and deposition
Summarisation of The Chapter
The chapter, Resource and Development delves into the concepts of resources and their kinds, its importance in the sphere of development and good life of human beings and the conservation thereof, failing which, mankind itself shall be on the verge of extinction owing to the exhaustion of resources.
The chapter further discusses in detail the resources- land and soil- their kinds and distribution pattern across the country and the threats to it thereof.
Page by Page Topic Wise Explanation
Page-1: Resource and its Types
Resources- Anything that can be used to create something or satisfy a need is called a resource. It has to be easily accessible, readily convertible and willingly consumable to be called a resource. Anything that is difficult to access, expensive to convert and does not have a willing consumer base is not a resource.
Resources are divided on the basis of:
(i) origin - how they are produced- biotic (organic, like-plant products, animal products) and abiotic (inorganic, like-soil, minerals, sunlight, wind).
(ii) exhaustibility - if or not they get over-renewable(if the resource can keep generating and never get over, like-wind, sunlight) and non-renewable (if the resource gets over through use and does not generate more of itself like-coal, petroleum, electricity).
(iii) ownership - who owns the resource (Oceans- no owners, but countries have rights of Exclusive Economic Zone; rivers and inland seas- National Government; highways- National Government; forests and forest produce, state highways, mines- State Government; plot, house, vehicles, trees and plants, education-individual).
(iv) status of development - identifies if the resource is unusable right now, or is a potential resource that might be used in the future(uranium in Ladakh); if a resource is readily usable now or developed resource(educated and skilled human resource or goods and commodities that are being used right now); or stocks (a readily available supply of resources that can be used through human and mechanical intervention to make it consumable. Example- Iron ores and Forest produce) and reserves (resources that are known to exist but are not being utilised at the moment because of not having the needed technology or need. Example- Diamond reserves deep underground).
Page 2: Development of Resources, Sustainable Development, Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit 1992, Resource Planning
Development of Resources and Problems Faced Because of Overuse of Resources:
Since the time that human beings occupied this earth, they have extensively used all the natural resources provided by nature believing that it was their right to take. There was also the belief that these resources would never run out.
But as the population grew, their needs grew and industrialisation set in for the mass production of goods, the pressure on the extraction of resources grew. Over these many years, we have reached a point where:
(i) We are finding the very land that provided us so much, barren- both in and out. Our land, water, air and many other resources have depleted in quantity or have become scarce in supply and has dete-rio-rated in quality.
(ii) Most of the valuable resources like land, expensive metals, expensive fuels have accumulated or have gathered in the hands of the rich and powerful creating an unequal distribution of the same. It is widely recognized that some environmental change will be inevitable as people develop and in particular as the global poor achieve higher standards of living. However, the challenge remains as to who is consuming what. A significant minority of the global population currently consumes far in excess of its ‘entitlement’ – just 20% of the global population consumes 80% of the world’s resources.
(iii) Indiscriminate or thoughtless and mindless use of land, water and air has led to our environment being affected through global warming, ozone layer depletion, rising water level, poor Air Quality Index to name a few.
Sustainable Development:
According to the International Institute for Sustainable Development, "Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." That means, we consciously use a little and keep the rest for the future generations without being greedy or selfish
Agenda 21 of the Rio Earth Summit:
One of the major results of the UNCED (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) Conference was Agenda 21, a daring program of action calling for:
(i) new strategies to invest in the future to achieve overall sustainable development in the 21st century
(ii) new methods of education,
(iii) new ways of preserving natural resources and
(iv) new ways of participating in a sustainable economy.
The Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit was conducted as a means for member states to cooperate together internationally on developmental issues relating to sustainability which being too big for individual member states to handle, Earth Summit was held as a platform for other member states to collaborate.
It was convened in part as an international environmental treaty to combat "dangerous human interference with the climate system" and to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. It was signed by 154 states.
A few of the principles of the summit are as follows:
(i) Principle - 1 : Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.
(ii) Principle - 2 : States have the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant (to pursue) to their own environmental and developmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.
(iii) Principle - 3 : The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations (sustainable Development).
Page 3: Resource Planning, Resource Planning in India, Resource and Colonization, Conservation of Resources
According to the Carl Vinson Institute of Government, environmental and natural resource planning combines protection of environmental resources with community goals. These community goals could include economic development, improved government efficiency and enhanced quality of life.
Incidentally, India has made sustained and systematic effort since the First Five Year Plan to achieve the goal of Resource Planning.
Since, there is no universal distribution of resources beginning from skilled work-force to habitable land to potable water to extractable minerals amongst other things, hence, a balanced resource planning is imperative, necessary because of the following reasons:
(i) every resource be surveyed, identified, mapped with
qualitative and quantitative estimation, and measured to determine the
stock and reserve of the same;
(ii) develop a structured plan, with proper technological skill and
institutional set up to aid in resource development;
(iii) match availability of resources in one part of the country to the need for
the same in another part of the country.
It may be understood that, just because an area is rich in a particular resource, it is no guarantee that, that particular resource can aid in the development of the location. This is so because, no resource single handedly, without help from other resources like labour, capital and enterprise can become a usable commodity and add value to itself and others.
Can you name some resource rich and economically backward regions and some resource poor but economically developed regions? Can you give reasons for such a situation?
Ans: Some resource rich but economically backward regions of India are:
Bihar
Chhattisgarh
Jharkhand
Madhya Pradesh
Some resource poor but economically developed regions of India are:
Punjab
Haryana
Gujrat
Maharashtra
The situation is such because the aforementioned states do not have the infrastructure and the institution to develop these resources and put it to profitable use; while the later mentioned states have the know-how, technology, infrastructure and institution to harness well whatever little resources they have and monetise it for its people.
Resource and Colonisation
The formal history of the world since the seventeenth century has been one of utilising your own resources to forcibly colonise the poorer, weaker, ignorant nations and utilize their own workforce (resource) to extract all kinds of natural resources as much as possible to the brink of exhaustion and extinction to feed the former’s trade and industry to in turn trade the finished goods to the very countries at a higher price from where the raw material and skill was forcibly taken.
The present day scenario is no different: the big industries and companies of the present, set up offices where there is the availability of cheap land (natural resources), labour (skilled work-force), capital (money, machines, ideas and technology) and enterprise (willingness to make things happen). The people of the native nation still work for the foreign companies, as was in the olden days, under their rules and regulations but now, as every country is an independent Republic, the government keeps certain checks and balances to protect the rights of its citizens.
Conservation of Resources
According to the Merriam-Webster, conservation is the careful preservation and protection of something, especially : planned management of a natural resource to prevent exploitation, destruction, or neglect. Examples: water conservation, wildlife conservation, land conservation so on and so forth.
An excerpt from Rights of Nature suggests, natural resources are essential for survival. Land, forests, water, fisheries, minerals, and air—these are all important to sustain life. But years of overexploitation in the name of technological advancement have amplified cases of deforestation, wildfires, oil spills, and other ecological hazards: all of which has limited the right to enjoy these resources for our future generations, because, by failing to conserve, none of it will be left for consumption.
Mohanlal Karamchand Gandhi, The Father and The Architect of the Independent and Modern Indian nation was very down to earth and ‘hands on’ when it came to the utilization of resources. He spun the thread and wove the textile for his own garment, which was in itself scarce; he cleaned the areas around him, toilets included. He ate all local and seasonal food and avoided anything bought from outside. He walked to all places that was possible to cover by foot. These are only some of his many good habits that resonate with his philosophy that 'The world has enough for everyone's need, but not enough for everyone's greed.' He also practiced the age old saying of ‘waste not, want not’. When Gandhiji began the Swadeshi movement and Boycotted the British goods, he gave an impetus to the Indians to give up mass produced factory made goods and make or create hand made products for mass consumption that would support the Indians to earn a living.
Gandhi’s Thought on Use, Misuse and Abuse of Resources
Page 4 : Major International Contributors to Conservation, Land as a Resource, Land Distribution Pattern of India, Land Utilization
A chronological list of contribution to conservation of a few famous organizations and personalities is as follows:
1968 : Resource Conservation in a more systematic way was propounded for the first time by the Club of Rome.
1974 : German-born British economist E. F. Schumacher, in his book Small is Beautiful, argued that large industries and large cities would lead to the depletion of resources.
1987 : The Brundtland Commission Report included chapters covering, among other topics within sustainable development, the role of the international economy, population and human resources, food security, species and ecosystems, energy, industry, and proposed legal principles for environmental protection that was published in the book ‘Our Common Future’.
1992 : The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro was convened to combat "dangerous human interference with the climate system".
The land area that is under human consumption is generally used for these following purposes:
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Residential and sustenance (food, clothing) purpose
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Transportation purpose
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Farming, Mining and other Economic purpose
Land as a Resource
The Earth that we inhabit is divided into land mass and water mass with water covering three-fourth of the Earth’s surface. The remaining one-fourth, that is one forty nine (149) million square kilometers of which about sixty four (64) million square kilometers is habitable for human beings and the rest is desert, mountain, forest and other un-inhabitable areas.
The last point, that is, the economic purpose has so taken over human beings that the ‘need for greed’ has pushed people to misuse and abuse resources to a point where it has degraded and depleted to an extent where our future generations might not even get to consume or experience it.
Land Distribution Pattern of India
According to Worldometer, India has about two percent of the Earth’s land mass which is a little less than three and a half (3.3) million square kilometers. Of this:
(i) Mountains occupy 10.6 %,
(ii) Hills occupy 18.5%,
(iii) Plateaus occupy 27.7% and
(iv) Plains occupy 43.2%.
Importance of Each of The Above-Mentioned Regions
Mountains - The Great Himalayan range that runs from the north west of India through the north up to the eastern states of India provides a natural barrier from intruders and the icy cold winds. The mountains are a perennial source of water for some of the mighty rivers that irrigate the plains of India and make them fertile. The mountain ecosystem provides raw materials for many industries and revenue for the state through tourism.
Hills - Hills work as geographical demarcations and identifiers. They also create the windward and the leeward side depending on which side of it aids rainfall. Hills add beauty to a place and also provide habitat to many species. Hill forests also play a crucial role in water management, decreasing peak flood flows, compensating water discharge, and acting as a source of high-quality freshwater.
Plateaus - Whether a dissected plateau (caused by upward thrust on tectonic plates) or a volcanic plateau (caused by consolidation of lava), plateaus are store houses of minerals and fertile soil. Gold, diamond, coal and iron-ore are some of the common subsets of minerals. The fertile soil also produces ‘golden harvest’. The sharp drop of the plateau provides the height to the rivers to generate enough pressure to rotate the turbines to generate hydro-electricity.
Plains - Ninety percent of the world’s population is resides in the plains. It is no wonder then that, almost all, barring a few, economic activities take place in the plains. Most wild and other domestic animals also call the plains their home. A whopping eighty five percent of crops grown is in the plains. Industry, transport and most other amenities like schools, offices, hospitals are mostly found concentrated in the plains. The plains are the ‘nerve centre’ of most human activities.
Land Utilization
Hence, mountainous and hilly region in India is about 56.8% of the total Indian land mass. And the rest 43.2% is plains, which is again divided into:
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Forests : 21.71%
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Agricultural Land : 60.05%
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Land not available for cultivation : 18.24% (Roads, buildings, desert, barren and fallow land included).
Forests : 21.71%
Whereas, the area under forest cover at 21.71% is way less than the desired 33% as outlined in the National Forest Policy of 1952 which considered it essential for maintenance of ecological balance, India still has a substantial 7, 13, 789 square kilometers of forest cover which needs to be protected and conserved to save lives in the present as well as in the future.
Agricultural Land : 60.05%
According to the World Bank collection of development indicators, India had 60.5 % of land under agriculture, though the Net Sown Area stood at a much lesser 45.5%. That means, that the rest of the agricultural land area was dedicated to cattle and other animal rearing.
Land not available for cultivation or area under non-agricultural uses : 18.24%
The area not available for cultivation or area under non-agricultural uses has more than tripled over the years from about 5% to about 18.24%. This includes every area that has been reclaimed by man but has not been put to use for cultivation purposes, but this land has been used to build roads and buildings, thereby making the land bereft of its green cover. Further, desert, barren and fallow land also adds to the number.
Gross Sown Area : The sum total of the areas under all crops over the various seasons in an agriculture year. Under GSA, area sown twice/thrice in the same year is counted as two/three times.
Net Sown Area : The sum total of all areas under all crops for an agricultural year calculated once is the Net Sown Area. The Net Sown Area of states depends on its physiology and topography. For example, the net sown are of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh are way higher than that of Sikkim, Uttarakhand, Kashmir, Mizoram because the hilly terrain does not help in growing of crops.
Page 5: Land Use Pattern
The forest cover, wrongly depicted in the figure, was 33% which has presently dwindled to 21.71 %, all thanks to human greed more than need. All the segments show a drop, while area under non-agricultural use (in olive green) has doubled; and fallow land has increased. This means that, the area of all kinds of land, be it barren or permanent pasture or grazing land or net sown area, has fallen because of reclamation of land by man for industrial and economic purposes.
Page 6: Land Degradation and Conservation Measures, Soil as a resource
The Earth that we inhabit is divided into land mass and water mass with water covering three-fourth of the Earth’s surface. The remaining one-fourth, that is one forty nine (149) million square kilometers of which about sixty four (64) million square kilometers is habitable for human beings and the rest is desert, mountain, forest and other un-inhabitable areas.
The land area that is under human consumption is generally used for these following purposes:
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Residential and Sustenance (food, clothing) Purpose2.
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Transportation Purpose3.
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Farming, Mining and other Economic Purpose
The last point, that is, the economic purpose has so taken over human beings that the ‘need for greed’ has pushed people to misuse and abuse resources to a point where it has degraded and depleted to an extent where our future generations might not even get to consume or experience it.
A few examples to prove the above point are as follows:
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In Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha, abandonment and deforestation of mining sites have led to land degradation.
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In Gujrat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, over grazing has led to degradation of land.
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In over irrigated agricultural land as in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh, waterlogging is often accompanied by increased soil salinity as waterlogged soils prevent leaching of the salts imported by the irrigation water which in turn reduces the crop yield.
75% of Earth's Land Areas Are Degraded, IPBES Report Warns
The steps that can be taken to conserve land from further degradation are as follows:
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Afforestation is the First and the Foremost step to conserve soil. The roots of the trees and the plants hold the soil in place, stopping it from being washed away.
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Management of grazing herds of cattle. As in the case of slash and burn, so also in the case with grazing. Cattle should be periodically moved away from the pastures without letting them pull out the green cover from its roots, to newer areas to help the grass in the earlier areas that they fed on to re-grow.
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Creating boundaries or shelter-belts of thorny bushes around deserts and arid areas stops the dry soil from blowing off to nearby fertile areas and degrading them.
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Management of waste land and waste water is of utmost importance to stop the contamination of the fertile soil around with toxic substances and also to stop the expansion and encroachment by the waste land areas on to the nearby fertile areas.
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Regulated mining activities can reduce over extraction of minerals that leaves the areas deforested, barren and uninhabitable for human beings, plants and trees and other animals and organisms.
Afforestation: Long Term Solution
Shelter Belts
Soil as a resource
Soil is the loose surface material that covers most land. It consists of inorganic particles and organic matter. Soil provides the structural support for plants and is also their source of water and nutrients. Soils vary greatly in their chemical and physical properties.
Soil minerals form the basis of soil. They are produced from rocks (parent material) through the processes of weathering and natural erosion. Water, wind, temperature change, gravity, chemical interaction, living organisms and pressure differences all help break down parent material into the soil that we know.
Although renewable, soil takes a very long time to form—up to hundreds of millions of years. So, for human purposes, soil is a nonrenewable resource.
Page 7: Classification of Soil
Soils are a very complex natural resource, much more so than air and water and so Soil Classification concerns the grouping of soils with a similar range of properties (chemical, physical and biological) into units that can be geo-referenced and mapped.
As learnt in land as a resource, India has an extremely diverse topography with physiological features because of which the types of soil present in the various geographical locations of India differ which in turn gives rise to a diverse vegetation.
The different kinds of soil available in India are as follows:
Minor Types
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Forest Soil
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Peaty / Marshy Soil
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Saline and Alkaline Soils
In the ancient period, the classification was based on soil fertility (Urvara) or sterility (Usara).
The Soil Survey of India and the National Bureau of Soil Survey have studied the classification of Indian soil and this is what they found:
Alluvial Soil
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Mostly available soil in India (about 43%) and widespread in northern plains (piedmont plains- foothills of mountains) and river valleys, while in peninsular India, they are found in deltas and estuaries.
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Highly fertile and rich in humus, potash, lime, and organic matter.
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They are depositional soil, that is, transported and deposited by rivers, streams, etc.
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New alluvium is termed as Khadar and old alluvium is termed as Bhangar.
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But the soil is poor in phosphorus.
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Main crops are wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseed, etc.
It is because of its high fertility that alluvial soil is intensely cultivated and the regions are densely populated. This soil becomes alkaline in the drier regions owning to the scarcity of water as water-starved soil prevents leaching of the salts.
Black Soil / Regur Soil
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Regur soil is also a structural soil formed from basaltic rocks. Most of the Deccan plateau is occupied by black soil.
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It has high water retaining capacity and is best soil for cotton cultivation.
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It becomes sticky when wet and shrinks when dried with self-plowing as a characteristic feature.
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The soil is rich in iron, lime, calcium, potassium, aluminum, and magnesium but is deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic matter.
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Normally it is deep black colored. But this variation is visible when one moves from south to north along western coastal plains.
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It is light black in Karnataka, brownish black in Maharashtra and deep black in Gujarat.
Red Soil and Yellow Soil
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It is formed from basement rock of plateau-like regions in low-rainfall areas.
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The structure of soil is porous and friable.
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It is rich in iron but there is absence of lime, phosphate, manganese, nitrogen, humus, potash and calcium carbonate.
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The soil is red in color because of ferric oxide and the lower layer is reddish-yellow.
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Crops like wheat, cotton, pulses, tobacco, oilseeds, potatoes, etc. can be cultivated.
Laterite Soil
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The name of this soil is derived from the Latin word ‘Later’ which means Brick, and becomes soft when wet and hard when dried.
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It is found in areas of high temperature and high rainfall, and is formed as a result of high leaching.
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This results in loss of lime and silica due to rainfall, and organic matter due to action of bacteria.
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The soil is rich in Iron and Aluminum but deficient in humus content, nitrogen, potash, potassium, lime.
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It is red in color due to iron oxide.
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Crops like Rice, Ragi, Sugarcane, and Cashew nuts can be grown.
Desert/ Arid Soil
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These are gradational and depositional soils found in arid and semi-arid conditions.
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Formed due to wind activities, they lack moisture and humus.
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Salt and Calcium carbonate content is high which restricts the infiltration of water. After proper irrigation, this soil may be made cultivable as in the case of western Rajasthan.
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Nitrogen is insufficient and Phosphate is normal.
Forest Soil
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Forest soils are found in higher altitudes and densely forested regions.
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They are acidic with a shallow topsoil layer and less humus.
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These soils are not suitable for intensive agriculture.
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They are suitable for horticulture, tea, and temperate crops like apples and potatoes.
Tabular Summarisation
Soil
Alluvial
Black/ Regur
RED/ YELLOW
ARID/ DESERT
FOREST
Features
Brown, moist, soft.
Black clayey
looks
cracked
when dry.
Red, porous, friable
Golden sand
Shallow mix of peat and soil
Properties
Depositional rock; rich in humus, potash, lime, and organic matter.
Basaltic rock; rich in iron, lime, calcium, potassium, aluminum, and magnesium but is deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic matter.
Found In
Foothills of mountains, around deltas and estuaries
Deccan and other plateau regions
Produces
Wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseed, etc.
Cotton
Basement rock; rich in Iron and Aluminum but deficient in humus content, nitrogen, potash, potassium, lime.
Areas of high temperature
and high rainfall.
Rice, Ragi, Sugarcane
and Cashew
Gradational and Depositional; Salt and Calcium carbonate content is high. Nitrogen is insufficient and Phosphate is normal.
Arid and semi-arid rain shadow areas.
Bajra, jowar, cotton, wheat, and sugarcane
Acidic with less humus.
Higher altitudes and densely forested regions
Horticulture, tea, apples and potatoes.
Page 10: Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation
Soil Erosion
According to NRDC.org, erosion is a geological process in which earthen materials (i.e., soil, rocks, sediments) are worn away and transported over time by natural forces such as water or wind; sometimes this is sped up by poor management or other human impacts on land.
Soil erosion refers to the erosion of the top layer of dirt known as topsoil, the fertile material vital to life. The rate of soil erosion depends on many factors, including the soil’s makeup, vegetation, and the intensity of wind, rain and of course, human actions like deforestation, over grazing, construction and mining to name a few.
Gully Erosion
According to NSW Environment and Heritage, ‘Gully erosion is a widespread and often dramatic form of soil erosion caused by flowing surface water. It consists of open, unstable channels that have been cut more than 30 centimetres deep into the ground. Gully erosion is a result of the interaction of land use, climate and slope’.
Sheet Erosion
Detachment of soil particles by raindrop impact and their removal downslope by water flowing overland as a sheet instead of in definite channels or rills, is called sheet erosion. A more or less uniform layer of fine particles is removed from the entire surface of an area, sometimes resulting in an extensive loss of rich topsoil.
Soil Conservation
Soil Conservation is a combination of practices used to protect the soil from degradation. Soil conservation is key to environmental sustainability: It helps protect natural resources and watersheds, restores habitats for plants and wildlife, improves water quality, and makes soil healthier. Soil conservation also creates economic opportunity. Productive and healthy soil helps farmers meet increased demand for agricultural commodities from a growing global population, driving economic growth.
According to Maryville.edu, some of the soil conservation practices are as follows:
No-till Farming
Tilling turns over about 10 inches of topsoil and allows farmers to plant more seeds with less effort. A downside of tilling is that it removes the plant covering, potentially leaving the soil bare, decreasing the amount of nutrient-rich organic matter, and reducing its ability to absorb water and retain nutrients. Tilling can also make the soil more susceptible to erosion. In no-till farming, seeds are planted in narrow furrows, eliminating the need to plow.
Terrace Farming
Terrace farming is an agricultural practice that uses terraces, or steps, built into the slopes of hilly or mountainous areas to create a water catchment system for crops and is commonly used in growing rice. Rainwater carries nutrients and vegetation from one terrace to the next, so the soil remains healthy. Terrace farming also reduces soil erosion and improves soil productivity in otherwise idle plots of land.
Contour Farming
Like terrace farming, contour farming involves growing crops on hills, but instead of changing the structure of a hill, the farmer uses its natural slope. In contour farming,
a farmer, ploughs the soil parallel to the hill’s contours, creating rows of small dams that minimize runoff of essential nutrients, organisms, and plants, while increasing water infiltration in the soil. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) reports that contour farming can reduce soil erosion by as much as 50%.
Crop Rotation
Instead of planting the same crop year after year on the same plot of land, crop rotation involves planning out growing seasons for different crops. This method of sustainable agriculture requires long-term planning, with crops changed every season. In addition to improving soil health and organic matter, crop rotation reduces the need for fertilizer and pesticides, lowering costs. It also helps prevent excess chemicals from entering water supplies, improving water quality.
Windbreaks (Shelter-belts)
Windbreaks are rows of trees and bushes planted between fields of crops, reducing the erosive power of the wind on the soil. Windbreaks also provide homes for living things. From an economic standpoint, using trees that produce fruits and nuts in windbreaks can diversify farm income.
Wetlands Restoration
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines wetlands restoration and protection as “removing a threat or preventing the decline of wetland conditions.” Wetlands provide a habitat for living creatures of all types. They also act as buffers, protecting farmlands from floods.
Buffer Strips
Like windbreaks, buffer strips are designated areas of land planted with trees and bushes. Instead of protecting soil from the wind, their purpose is to prevent water runoff and reduce erosion.
Forest Cover Reestablishment
In areas where soil has degraded, the reestablishment of forest cover can improve soil and restore ecosystem health. This method provides shade for crops and is particularly useful for forest farming which cultivates high-value crops, such as those used for medicinal purposes.
Earthworms
Earthworms are among the most productive organisms in soil. They digest plant matter, releasing essential nutrients into the soil, and their tunnel networks create air channels that help water move through the soil.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which one of the following is the main cause of land degradation in Punjab?
Ans: (c) Over irrigation is the main cause of land degradation in Punjab.
2. In which one of the following states is terrace cultivation practiced?
Ans: (a) Terrace cultivation is practiced in Uttarakhand.
3. In which of the following states, black soil is predominantly found?
Ans: (b) Black soil is predominantly found in the state of Maharashtra.
Answer the following questions in about 30 words
1. Name the three states having black soil and the crop which is mainly grown in it.
Ans:
The states along the Deccan and Malwa plateau like, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Gujrat have the basaltic black soil rich in iron, lime, calcium, potassium that help in the growth of cotton.
2. What type of soil is found in the river deltas of the eastern coast? Give three main features of this type of soil.
Ans:
Alluvial soil, a
(i) depositional soil
(ii) rich in humus, potash, organic matter
(iii) that is alkaline in the drier areas is found in the river deltas of the eastern coast of India.
3. What steps can be taken to control soil erosion in the hilly areas?
Ans
(i) Terrace farming that uses steps, built into the hilly areas and
(ii) Contour farming where its natural slope is used to grow crops are steps taken to control soil erosion in hilly areas.
Answer the following questions in about 120 words
1. Explain land use pattern in India and why has the land under forest not increased much since 1960-61?
Ans:
India’s Land Distribution Pattern is as follows:
Mountainous and hilly region in India is about 56.8% of the total Indian land mass. And the rest 43.2% is plains, which is divided into:
(i) Forests: 21.71%
(ii) Agricultural Land: 60.05%
(iii) Land not available for cultivation: 18.24% (Roads, buildings, desert, barren and fallow land included).
The forest cover which earlier was 33% has presently dwindled to 21.71 %, all thanks to human greed more than need. Land under forest has not increased because mindless construction of houses, extensive roads and railways, industries to produce various goods has resulted in large scale deforestation because of which the land under forest cover has not only not increased but has in fact gone down.
2. How has technical and economic development led to more consumption of resources?
Ans:
Research and Development and advancement in technology has aided in extensive extraction of resources and utilising them to mass produce goods and commodities on a large scale for consumption by the growing population.
Economic or financial development, on the other hand, increases the purchasing power of the people which in turn increases the demand of things, to fulfil which producers and suppliers increase the production and supply of goods and services there-by leading to more consumption of resources which are used in the production of these.
A few examples to prove the point are:
(i) Land, wood and other construction material for housing.
(ii) Land, metal, wood for roads and railways.
(iii) Need for minerals to provide raw materials to factories.